Team:Hong Kong HKUST/Project/module2
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#content | #content | ||
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{display:none} | {display:none} | ||
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padding: 0; | padding: 0; | ||
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{ | { | ||
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width:100%; | width:100%; | ||
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width: 16.66667%; | width: 16.66667%; | ||
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+ | |||
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width: 25%; | width: 25%; | ||
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+ | <p id="back-top" style=""display:none;> | ||
+ | <a href="#top"><span><img src="http://515alive.com/theme/img/up-arrow.png" style="width:90%;"><br><br>BACK TO TOP</span></a> | ||
+ | </p> | ||
<a href=https://2013.igem.org/Team:Hong_Kong_HKUST><center><div id="kepala" style="height:121px;width:100%;"><img src="https://static.igem.org/mediawiki/igem.org/c/c7/BANNER1_%281%29.png" style="height:121px;width:100%;align:middle;"></div></center></a> | <a href=https://2013.igem.org/Team:Hong_Kong_HKUST><center><div id="kepala" style="height:121px;width:100%;"><img src="https://static.igem.org/mediawiki/igem.org/c/c7/BANNER1_%281%29.png" style="height:121px;width:100%;align:middle;"></div></center></a> | ||
<div id="cover"></div> | <div id="cover"></div> | ||
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</div> | </div> | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
- | <div class="row"> | + | <div class="row"> |
<div class="two columns"> | <div class="two columns"> | ||
<ul class="side-nav"> | <ul class="side-nav"> | ||
<li> | <li> | ||
- | <h6> | + | <h6>FA Sensing Mechanism</h6> |
</li> | </li> | ||
<li class="divider"></li> | <li class="divider"></li> | ||
<li> | <li> | ||
- | <a href= | + | <a href=#1>Overview</a> |
</li> | </li> | ||
<li> | <li> | ||
- | <a href= | + | <a href=#2>FABP1 Promoter</a> |
</li> | </li> | ||
- | |||
<li> | <li> | ||
- | <a href= | + | <a href=#3>PPAR-alpha Promoter</a> |
+ | |||
</li> | </li> | ||
- | <li> | + | |
- | <a href= | + | <li> |
- | </li> | + | <a href=#4>GRP78 Promoter</a> |
- | <li> | + | |
- | + | ||
+ | </li> | ||
+ | <li> | ||
+ | <a href=#5><i>fadR</i> and pFadBA</a> | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | </li> | ||
+ | |||
+ | </ul> | ||
+ | <ul class="side-nav1"> | ||
<li> | <li> | ||
- | < | + | <h6>Modules</h6> |
</li> | </li> | ||
+ | <li class="divider"></li> | ||
<li> | <li> | ||
- | + | <a href="https://2013.igem.org/Team:Hong_Kong_HKUST/Project/module1">FA Quantification & Cell Viability</a> | |
- | + | ||
</li> | </li> | ||
<li> | <li> | ||
- | + | FA Sensing Mechanism | |
</li> | </li> | ||
- | + | <li> | |
- | + | <a href="https://2013.igem.org/Team:Hong_Kong_HKUST/Project/module3">Protein Trafficking</a> | |
+ | </li> | ||
+ | <li> | ||
+ | <a href="https://2013.igem.org/Team:Hong_Kong_HKUST/Project/module4">Glyoxylate Shunt</a> | ||
+ | </li> | ||
+ | </ul> | ||
+ | |||
</div> | </div> | ||
<div class="ten columns team-bios-container"> | <div class="ten columns team-bios-container"> | ||
<div class="row" id="ugd-members"> | <div class="row" id="ugd-members"> | ||
<div class="twelve columns"> | <div class="twelve columns"> | ||
+ | |||
<h2 class="centered">Fatty Acid Sensing Mechanism</h2> | <h2 class="centered">Fatty Acid Sensing Mechanism</h2> | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
<div class="row"> | <div class="row"> | ||
- | <div class="nine columns"> | + | <div class="nine columns"><p id="1"></p> |
- | <h3> | + | <h3>Overview</h3> |
+ | Recently, UCLA research group has introduced glyoxylate shunt to mammalian liver cell to investigate fatty acid metabolism. In their project, a constitutive promoter was used. In addition to the constitutive glyoxylate shunt, fatty acid sensing mechanism team is trying to introduce an inducible system that allows tunable fatty acid uptake by sensing fatty acid concentrations. It prevents risk of fatty acid deficiency when fatty acid concentration is below normal. | ||
+ | <br><br> | ||
+ | In our project, four different fatty acid induced promoters were investigated, namely: Liver Fatty Acid Binding Protein 1 (FABP1) promoter, Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) promoter, Glucose Regulated Protein (GRP78) promoter, Fatty Acid Metabolism Regulator Protein (FadR) and pFadBA promoter | ||
<br> | <br> | ||
- | |||
- | |||
</div> | </div> | ||
- | <div class=" | + | </div> |
- | + | <div class="row"> | |
+ | <div class="nine columns"><p id="2"></p> | ||
+ | <h3>Liver Fatty Acid Binding Protein 1 (FABP1) promoter </h3> | ||
+ | Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) are lipid-binding proteins that regulate fatty acid uptake and transfer between extra-and intracellular membranes. There are 9 different FABPs identified with tissue-specific distribution, including FABP1 in liver. With similar structure of all FABPs, the FABP genes consist of 3 introns and 4 exons. Some are believed to transport fatty acids from outer membrane to intracellular receptors, such as PPAR and they have a selective cooperation with the receptor. | ||
+ | <br> | ||
+ | <h5><b>Experiment flow</b></h5> | ||
+ | This promoter was cloned from human genomic DNA (gDNA) (See gDNA extraction and PCR protocols) with engineered RFC10 prefix and suffix for BioBrick submission. The promoter was then ligated with enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) from pEGFP-N1 (Addgene), and cloned into BBa_J176171 mammalian backbone. The promoter and eGFP were successfully cloned into BBa_J176171 by digestion and ligation. | ||
+ | <br><br> | ||
+ | The confirmed construct was transfected into two mammalian cells, HEK293FT and HepG2 cell lines. GFP signal of the construct was compared with pEGF-N1 plasmid that contains constitutive CMV promoter. However, no GFP signal could be detected. | ||
+ | <br><br> | ||
+ | Since FABP1 promoter contained illegal restriction sites for BioBrick submission, we conducted multi site-directed mutagenesis to elimitate EcoRI and PstI from the coding sequence. (See Mutagenesis protocol 1,2 and 3 ). | ||
+ | <br><br> | ||
+ | The FABP1 promoter was to be characterized by over-expression of eGFP reporter in the presence of high fatty acid concentration in the medium1. However, no eGFP signal could be detected. | ||
+ | <br><br> | ||
+ | After several attempts of site-mutagenesis of promoter in FABP1 – eGFP – BBa_J176171 construct, we found that the plasmid degrades at a high temperature. We tested heat sensitivity of the plasmid BBa_J176171 and found that the plasmid degrades at denaturation step (95 °C) of polymerase chain reaction. Then, we took an alternative experiment by cloning FABP1 promoter into pBlueScript KS(+). Due to time constrain, two mutagenesis attempts were taken but both of them were not successful.<br> | ||
+ | |||
</div> | </div> | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
<div class="row"> | <div class="row"> | ||
- | <div class=" | + | <div class="nine columns"><p id="3"></p> |
- | + | <h3>Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) Promoter</h3> | |
+ | We planned to clone PPAR-alpha promoter from human genomic DNA using polymerase chain reaction. We designed three sets of primers in upstream and downstream of promoter sequence, for different polymerases and referencing on Pineda Torra team’s experiment2. In addition, polymerase chain reaction was conducted at different temperatures, primer concentrations and buffers. However, none of the primers could successfully clone the PPAR-alpha promoter. | ||
+ | <br><br> | ||
+ | Primers used to extract PPAR-alpha promoter from gDNA:<br> | ||
+ | Forward:<center><br> GATCATATTAATGAATTCGCGGCCGCTTCTAGAGTTCCCTCACCAAACACAACAGGATGA</center><br> | ||
+ | Reverse:<center><br> GATCATGGATCCTACTAGTAGCGGCCGCTGCAGCGCAAGAGTCCTCGGTGT</center><br> | ||
+ | Forward:<center><br> GATCAT ATTAATGAATTCGCGGCCGCTTCTAGAGGGTATGCCAGGTAATGTCTT</center><br> | ||
+ | Reverse:<center><br> GATCATGGATCCCTGCAGCGGCCGCTACTAGTACAAGAGTCCTCGGTGTGT</center><br> | ||
+ | Forward from reference paper:<br><br> | ||
+ | <center>GATCAT ATTAAT GAATTCGCGGCCGCTTCTAGAGGAGCGTCACGGCCCGAACAAAGC</center><br> | ||
+ | Reverse from reference papers+ RFC10 prefix and suffix:<br><br> | ||
+ | <center>GATCATGGATCCCTGCAGCGGCCGCTACTAGTAAGTCCTCGGTGTGTGTCCTCGCTCCTC</center><br><br> | ||
+ | |||
+ | Since the PPAR-alpha promoter coding sequence could not be obtained from human genomic DNA, further experiment could not be preceded.<br> | ||
+ | |||
</div> | </div> | ||
- | <div class="nine columns"> | + | </div> |
- | <h3> | + | <div class="row"> |
+ | <div class="nine columns"><p id="4"></p> | ||
+ | <h3>Glucose Regulated Protein (GRP78) Promoter </h3> | ||
+ | GRP78 (HSPA5) is involved in the folding and assembly of proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The level of GRP78 is believed to be strongly correlated with the amount of secretory proteins (e.g. IgG) within the ER, which suggests its key role in monitoring protein transport through the cell. | ||
<br><br> | <br><br> | ||
- | + | High concentration of fatty acids disrupts cell homeostasis, causing endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) activating the unfolded protein response (UPR) that consists of 3 transmembrane proteins: IRE1 PERK and ATF6. Three signals constitutively activate the GRP78 promoter with the help of other factors, such as NF-Y, ERSF, YY1 and cleaved ATF6, acquired from the normal stress response followed by UPR. | |
- | + | ||
<br><br> | <br><br> | ||
- | + | <h5><b>Experiment Flow</b></h5> | |
+ | The commercial plasmid pDRIVE_hGRP78 (InvivoGen) was treated following manufacturer instructions (See manufacturer protocol). GRP78 promoter was extracted out by polymerase chain reaction with engineered RFC10 prefix, suffix, AseI upstream of prefix and XhoI in downstream of suffix to facilitate cloning into pEGFP-N1 backbone (Addgene). pEGFP-N1 is a mammalian vector that contains constitutive CMV promoter and enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) as a reporter. We replaced CMV promoter with inducible GFP78 promoter by digestion and ligation. Since GRP78 promoter contained illegal restriction sites, two kinds of mutagenesis were conducted (See Mutagenesis protocol 2 and 3) for the elimination of XbaI. Due to time constrain, promoter activity in mammalian cell could not be characterized. | ||
+ | <br> | ||
+ | |||
+ | </div> | ||
+ | </div> | ||
+ | <div class="row"> | ||
+ | <div class="nine columns"><p id="5"></p> | ||
+ | <h3>Fatty Acid Metabolism Regulator Protein (FadR) and pFadBA</h3> | ||
+ | A bacterial transcription factor that regulates lipid metabolism of fatty acid biosynthesis and beta-oxidation. The binding of fadR is inhibited by fatty acyl-CoA compounds, which are intermediates of fatty acid degradation. HKUST iGEM group has designed to use this protein in mammalian cell to sense the amount of fatty acid present in the cell. | ||
<br><br> | <br><br> | ||
- | In terms of promoter efficiency, the difference in prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription mechanisms gives this protein low possibility to be expressed in mammalian cell. However, HKUST group plans to investigate the efficiency of prokaryotic transcription factor in eukaryotic system and compare efficiency with other sensing mechanisms, which are believed to be present in mammalian cell. | + | In terms of promoter efficiency, the difference in prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription mechanisms gives this protein low possibility to be expressed in mammalian cell. However, HKUST group plans to investigate the efficiency of prokaryotic transcription factor in eukaryotic system and compare efficiency with other sensing mechanisms, which are believed to be present in mammalian cell. |
<br><br> | <br><br> | ||
- | + | In the absence of fatty acid, a constitutively expressed fatty acid metabolism regulator protein FadR binds to Pfad promoter (pFadBA) and inhibits the expression of aceA and aceB. In our project, we aim to use this sensing mechanism to regulate the transcription of aceA and aceB, genes for glyoxylate shunt. As a regulatory system, when fatty acid is introduced to HepG2 cell, fatty acid is converted into acyl-CoA, which binds to fadR and inhibits repression of PfadBA. | |
- | + | <br> | |
+ | <h5><b>Experiment Flow</b></h5> | ||
+ | The FadR (BBa_K817001) and pFadBA (BBa_K817002) DNA were obtained from 2013 distribution kit, submitted by NTU-Taida 2012 team. For expression in mammalian cells, pFadBA was cloned into mammalian vector (BBa_J176171) with an enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) as reporter. After successful construct of pFadBA – eGFP – BBa_J176171, the plasmid was transfected into HEK293FT cell. | ||
<br><br> | <br><br> | ||
- | + | For the promoter regulation, we cloned FadR into BBa_J176171 backbone, with Kozak sequence and Nuclear Leading Sequence (NLS) for transcription and translation efficiency in mammalian cell. | |
+ | After confirmation of the construct, Kozak Sequence – FadR coding sequence – NLS was cloned into pEGFP-N1 that contains mammalian constitutive CMV promoter. The pFadBA promoter and FadR protein constructs were to be co-transfected in HEK293FT cell and selected using different drug selection markers – Puromycin for BBa_J176171 and Neomycin for pEGFP-N1. | ||
<br><br> | <br><br> | ||
- | + | After co-transfection of two constructs to HEK cell, no eGFP signal could be detected from fadBA promoter construct. We believed that even though we have introduced Kozak and nuclear leader sequences to protein coding sequence, difference in prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription mechanism gives fadR protein low possibility to be expressed in mammalian cell. | |
- | + | ||
<br><br> | <br><br> | ||
- | + | After transfecting to mammalian cells, these promoters will be induced by Fatty Acids or its oxidation products, leading to expression of eGFP. By comparing the image of the intensity of eGFP using Fluorescent microscopy, we will be able to quantify their expression and determine the desired sensing mechanism which is most efficient for Glyoxylate genes expression. | |
<br> | <br> | ||
- | + | </div> | |
- | + | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
- | + | <div class="row"> | |
- | <div class="nine columns"> | + | <div class="nine columns"><p id="5"></p> |
- | <h3> | + | <h3>References</h3> |
- | < | + | <sup>1</sup> Guzman, Carla et al. "The human liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1) gene is activated by FOXA1 and PPARα; and repressed by C/EBPα: Implications in FABP1 down-regulation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease." <i>Biochemica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology.</i> 1831.4 (April 2013): 803-818. Web. 23 Sep. 2013. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1388198113000036>.<br><br> |
- | + | <sup>2</sup> Ines Pineda Torra et al. “Characterization of the human PPARalpha promoter: Identification of a functional Nuclear Receptor Response Element.” | |
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- | + | </div> | |
- | + | ||
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- | + | ||
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</div> | </div> | ||
</div> | </div> |
Revision as of 16:38, 24 September 2013
![](https://static.igem.org/mediawiki/igem.org/c/c7/BANNER1_%281%29.png)
-
FA Sensing Mechanism
- Overview
- FABP1 Promoter
- PPAR-alpha Promoter
- GRP78 Promoter
- fadR and pFadBA
-
Modules
- FA Quantification & Cell Viability
- FA Sensing Mechanism
- Protein Trafficking
- Glyoxylate Shunt
Fatty Acid Sensing Mechanism
Overview
Recently, UCLA research group has introduced glyoxylate shunt to mammalian liver cell to investigate fatty acid metabolism. In their project, a constitutive promoter was used. In addition to the constitutive glyoxylate shunt, fatty acid sensing mechanism team is trying to introduce an inducible system that allows tunable fatty acid uptake by sensing fatty acid concentrations. It prevents risk of fatty acid deficiency when fatty acid concentration is below normal.In our project, four different fatty acid induced promoters were investigated, namely: Liver Fatty Acid Binding Protein 1 (FABP1) promoter, Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) promoter, Glucose Regulated Protein (GRP78) promoter, Fatty Acid Metabolism Regulator Protein (FadR) and pFadBA promoter
Liver Fatty Acid Binding Protein 1 (FABP1) promoter
Fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs) are lipid-binding proteins that regulate fatty acid uptake and transfer between extra-and intracellular membranes. There are 9 different FABPs identified with tissue-specific distribution, including FABP1 in liver. With similar structure of all FABPs, the FABP genes consist of 3 introns and 4 exons. Some are believed to transport fatty acids from outer membrane to intracellular receptors, such as PPAR and they have a selective cooperation with the receptor.Experiment flow
This promoter was cloned from human genomic DNA (gDNA) (See gDNA extraction and PCR protocols) with engineered RFC10 prefix and suffix for BioBrick submission. The promoter was then ligated with enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) from pEGFP-N1 (Addgene), and cloned into BBa_J176171 mammalian backbone. The promoter and eGFP were successfully cloned into BBa_J176171 by digestion and ligation.The confirmed construct was transfected into two mammalian cells, HEK293FT and HepG2 cell lines. GFP signal of the construct was compared with pEGF-N1 plasmid that contains constitutive CMV promoter. However, no GFP signal could be detected.
Since FABP1 promoter contained illegal restriction sites for BioBrick submission, we conducted multi site-directed mutagenesis to elimitate EcoRI and PstI from the coding sequence. (See Mutagenesis protocol 1,2 and 3 ).
The FABP1 promoter was to be characterized by over-expression of eGFP reporter in the presence of high fatty acid concentration in the medium1. However, no eGFP signal could be detected.
After several attempts of site-mutagenesis of promoter in FABP1 – eGFP – BBa_J176171 construct, we found that the plasmid degrades at a high temperature. We tested heat sensitivity of the plasmid BBa_J176171 and found that the plasmid degrades at denaturation step (95 °C) of polymerase chain reaction. Then, we took an alternative experiment by cloning FABP1 promoter into pBlueScript KS(+). Due to time constrain, two mutagenesis attempts were taken but both of them were not successful.
Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) Promoter
We planned to clone PPAR-alpha promoter from human genomic DNA using polymerase chain reaction. We designed three sets of primers in upstream and downstream of promoter sequence, for different polymerases and referencing on Pineda Torra team’s experiment2. In addition, polymerase chain reaction was conducted at different temperatures, primer concentrations and buffers. However, none of the primers could successfully clone the PPAR-alpha promoter.Primers used to extract PPAR-alpha promoter from gDNA:
Forward:
GATCATATTAATGAATTCGCGGCCGCTTCTAGAGTTCCCTCACCAAACACAACAGGATGA
Reverse:
GATCATGGATCCTACTAGTAGCGGCCGCTGCAGCGCAAGAGTCCTCGGTGT
Forward:
GATCAT ATTAATGAATTCGCGGCCGCTTCTAGAGGGTATGCCAGGTAATGTCTT
Reverse:
GATCATGGATCCCTGCAGCGGCCGCTACTAGTACAAGAGTCCTCGGTGTGT
Forward from reference paper:
Reverse from reference papers+ RFC10 prefix and suffix:
Since the PPAR-alpha promoter coding sequence could not be obtained from human genomic DNA, further experiment could not be preceded.
Glucose Regulated Protein (GRP78) Promoter
GRP78 (HSPA5) is involved in the folding and assembly of proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The level of GRP78 is believed to be strongly correlated with the amount of secretory proteins (e.g. IgG) within the ER, which suggests its key role in monitoring protein transport through the cell.High concentration of fatty acids disrupts cell homeostasis, causing endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) activating the unfolded protein response (UPR) that consists of 3 transmembrane proteins: IRE1 PERK and ATF6. Three signals constitutively activate the GRP78 promoter with the help of other factors, such as NF-Y, ERSF, YY1 and cleaved ATF6, acquired from the normal stress response followed by UPR.
Experiment Flow
The commercial plasmid pDRIVE_hGRP78 (InvivoGen) was treated following manufacturer instructions (See manufacturer protocol). GRP78 promoter was extracted out by polymerase chain reaction with engineered RFC10 prefix, suffix, AseI upstream of prefix and XhoI in downstream of suffix to facilitate cloning into pEGFP-N1 backbone (Addgene). pEGFP-N1 is a mammalian vector that contains constitutive CMV promoter and enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) as a reporter. We replaced CMV promoter with inducible GFP78 promoter by digestion and ligation. Since GRP78 promoter contained illegal restriction sites, two kinds of mutagenesis were conducted (See Mutagenesis protocol 2 and 3) for the elimination of XbaI. Due to time constrain, promoter activity in mammalian cell could not be characterized.Fatty Acid Metabolism Regulator Protein (FadR) and pFadBA
A bacterial transcription factor that regulates lipid metabolism of fatty acid biosynthesis and beta-oxidation. The binding of fadR is inhibited by fatty acyl-CoA compounds, which are intermediates of fatty acid degradation. HKUST iGEM group has designed to use this protein in mammalian cell to sense the amount of fatty acid present in the cell.In terms of promoter efficiency, the difference in prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription mechanisms gives this protein low possibility to be expressed in mammalian cell. However, HKUST group plans to investigate the efficiency of prokaryotic transcription factor in eukaryotic system and compare efficiency with other sensing mechanisms, which are believed to be present in mammalian cell.
In the absence of fatty acid, a constitutively expressed fatty acid metabolism regulator protein FadR binds to Pfad promoter (pFadBA) and inhibits the expression of aceA and aceB. In our project, we aim to use this sensing mechanism to regulate the transcription of aceA and aceB, genes for glyoxylate shunt. As a regulatory system, when fatty acid is introduced to HepG2 cell, fatty acid is converted into acyl-CoA, which binds to fadR and inhibits repression of PfadBA.
Experiment Flow
The FadR (BBa_K817001) and pFadBA (BBa_K817002) DNA were obtained from 2013 distribution kit, submitted by NTU-Taida 2012 team. For expression in mammalian cells, pFadBA was cloned into mammalian vector (BBa_J176171) with an enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) as reporter. After successful construct of pFadBA – eGFP – BBa_J176171, the plasmid was transfected into HEK293FT cell.For the promoter regulation, we cloned FadR into BBa_J176171 backbone, with Kozak sequence and Nuclear Leading Sequence (NLS) for transcription and translation efficiency in mammalian cell. After confirmation of the construct, Kozak Sequence – FadR coding sequence – NLS was cloned into pEGFP-N1 that contains mammalian constitutive CMV promoter. The pFadBA promoter and FadR protein constructs were to be co-transfected in HEK293FT cell and selected using different drug selection markers – Puromycin for BBa_J176171 and Neomycin for pEGFP-N1.
After co-transfection of two constructs to HEK cell, no eGFP signal could be detected from fadBA promoter construct. We believed that even though we have introduced Kozak and nuclear leader sequences to protein coding sequence, difference in prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription mechanism gives fadR protein low possibility to be expressed in mammalian cell.
After transfecting to mammalian cells, these promoters will be induced by Fatty Acids or its oxidation products, leading to expression of eGFP. By comparing the image of the intensity of eGFP using Fluorescent microscopy, we will be able to quantify their expression and determine the desired sensing mechanism which is most efficient for Glyoxylate genes expression.
References
1 Guzman, Carla et al. "The human liver fatty acid binding protein (FABP1) gene is activated by FOXA1 and PPARα; and repressed by C/EBPα: Implications in FABP1 down-regulation in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease." Biochemica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology. 1831.4 (April 2013): 803-818. Web. 23 Sep. 2013.2 Ines Pineda Torra et al. “Characterization of the human PPARalpha promoter: Identification of a functional Nuclear Receptor Response Element.”