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Team:Paris Bettencourt/Human Practice/TB France
From 2013.igem.org
Main Findings
- In order to assess how synthetic biology could be used to fight tuberculosis, we conducted a comprehensive study – including interviews and bibliographical analysis – of the economical, social and political aspects of our subject.
- After an interview with a policy maker at the World Health Organization, we decided to conduct the study from a local point of view. We chose France as a model and conducted interviews with three doctors from two different Parisian Hospital, two patients, three researchers and 1 person working in a French politic institution that deals with TB. We also conducted a survey towards the general public about TB
- The epidemiology of TB in France shows inequalities between regions. Ile de France (Paris region) is the most affected. A new problem doctors are dealing with is the emergence of multiresistant forms of TB.
- TB’s diagnosis is at the same time clinical, biological and radiological. The treatment of TB consists in 4 drugs: isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol. Diagnostics take a very long time and a major problems with the actual treatment is the adherence and the multi-resistant forms
- In France, many institutions are involved in shaping public policies against TB. The CLAT i(Fight against tuberculosis center) is the armed arm and major local actor for the fight against TB.
- TB is a social stigma associated with poverty. In France, most of the people who have TB are migrants and live in very precarious conditions
- The rise of multidrugresistant forms of TB in France is linked to semi-efficient health care systems of foreign countries (South Africa, Former Soviet Union) and the migration of patients who have already been treated for TB and have developed resistant forms
- Doctors may face a therapeutic impasse, especially when resistance occurs. In such cases, they tend to give patients other drugs, even drugs (even some that don"t have known effects on TB), or to use old methods such as invasive surgery.
- New treatments are few: only one drug has been approved in the last 40 years. Political problems such as drug approval have major issues in those new drug development.
- Synthetic biology may help find new drugs, as we did by cloning a sulfur metabolism pathway, specific to Mycobacterium, in E.Coli. This new type of drug screening would solve a lot of experimental issues currently linked with TB, like slow growth as well as specific targeting of new pathways.
While looking at TB facts and thinking on how could synthetic biology be useful to deal with TB, we asked Christopher Dye, Director of Health Information in the Office of HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis, Malaria and Neglected Tropical Diseases at the World Health Organization (WHO) , that very question. Here are some elements of his answers :
« Differently, depending on where you are – you have to do the local research on this »
« Yes very interdisciplinary – try to see problems from the viewpoint of others »
Therefore we followed his advice and tried to investigate locally (in France) and to meet different actors (Medical Personnal, Patients, Political and social actors). Why France? First, it was the easiest to meet people and to get reports. Secondly, it is very interesting, to look at TB in a country, where people thing TB is completely controlled and see what are the new problems linked with TB.
General overview of Tuberculosis in France: epidemiological, medical and political perspectives
Epidemiological view of TB in France in the last ten years.
A very slow decrease of the incidence rate
TB has taken more lives than any other contagious disease before the antibiotics era. It was thought that the disease would be eradicated by the end of the 20th century. However, people living in precarious situations, migrants, immune depressed people (especially HIV patient) still suffer from TB and keep the number of TB case per year from going too low. Therefore in France, 4991 cases of Tuberculosis were diagnosed in 2011.
(Plotted from dta from INVS)
Some departments and class of people are more affected than others
TB does not affect French Territory the same way. On 22 regions, Ile de France (Paris region) represents 1768 cases (more than 1/3rd). This epidemiological difference can be explained by the different demographic profile of the French Regions. Ile de France is by far the most urbanized and dense region of France. Promiscuity being a very important in the transmission of TB, it is logical to see those kind of differences.
Population groups are also affected differently. Infant and young people are qui protected. This is mainly due to a very strong vaccination policy that will be explained a bit later. The most affected age group is adults under 60. Indeed, this corresponds to migrants and a lot of HIV patients.
The problem of the rise of MDR forms
The most interesting factor is the apparition of Multi-drug resistance TB (MDR TB)in the last years. Even if the incidence rate has decreased, the number of MDR TB has risen and is expected to continue to rise. Those forms comes mainly from foreign patients arriving in France mainly from the former Soviet Union and South Africa. This aspect will be developed a bit later
A patient arrives in a French hospital, what happens ?
General medical description of TB
The infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis doesn’t necessary evolve in a disease. Most of the time, the infection is controlled by the immune system (even if the pathogen remains latent somewhere).
When the tuberculose remains latent (no symptoms), it will not be treated except for very specific cases (immunodeficient patient, people that will receive a transplant …)
When patient becomes symptomatic (long lasting cough, spitting, fiever, loss of wheigh, night sweats…), TB-disease becomes contagious ( droplets produced when coughing or sneezing).
During the tuberculosis-disease we have 3 kinds of bacilli’s populations:
• extracellular bacilli = 95% of bacilli, active, fast multiplication, responsible of contamination and symptoms.
• intra-cellullar quiescent bacilli, in macrophages, slow multiplication.
• extracellular bacilli in the caseous and some other extra-pulmonary locations, latent, responsible of the risk of relapse, very slow multiplication.
The tubercle bacillus is known as an intracellular pathogen. However it is the extracellular population that clinicians aim to eliminate.
When a TB case is diagnosed in France it has to be reported to the ARS (Agence Régionale de la Santé), French Regional Agency of Health.
Diagnostical tools
When a patient expresses symptoms or corresponds to categories of when TB latent has to be treated, different diagnostic tests are run to dertermine if those sympthoms are caused by a Mycobacterium or not.
The first test is to get an inoculum by having the patient spit or by getting this with a tube near the lungs. The sample is then analyzed under the microscope. The unit that is looked at is the number of BAAR (Acid-alcohol resistant bacillus) using Ziehl-Neelsen stain. The test is done at least three times on 3 different samples taken at 24 hours intervals. Samples are then culture and a PCR is ran to confirm the strain and to check the most common resistance. It takes approximatively a week to get the results. No treatment is given before getting those results, the worst fear being of selecting resistant forms.
Finally there is a third test that is not used by every hospital because it can be difficult to interpret : the intra Dermo Reaction. Basically, a droplet of liquid containing TB antigenes is put on the skin of the arm of the patient. If the patient has ever been exposed to a mycobacterium in his life,an inflammatory reaction happens. This test is difficult to analyze because it does not give the type of Mycobacterium the patient has been exposed to nor if the patient is still infected with Mycobacterium nor the stage of the TB.
Of course, in extreme cases of pulmonary TB, a lung radio can reveal some elements called “cavern” which directly confirm the TB-disease.
Treatment
The treatment consists of 4 first-line drugs in combination during 2 months: isoniazid, rifampicine, ethambutol and pyrazinamide. Within the first 2 months of appropriate chemotherapy, the vast majority of bacilli have been killed. It allows clinicians to virtually eliminate the risk of transmission and the selection of drug-resistant mutants. The patient need to follow the treatment during 4 other months (bitherapy: isoniazid, rifampicin).
4) Pharmacological caracteristics of antituberculosis drugs
Isoniazid: The most active drug for the treatment of tuberculosis.
The mechanism of action is the Inhibition of synthesis of mycolic acids, which are main components of mycobacterial cell wall. As a result of the activity, tubercle bacilli lose their features of acid-resistance, water-resistance and proliferating ability, leading to death.Due to its mechanism of action, it is bactericidal against actively growing tubercle bacilli. For resting tubercle bacilli it is bacteriostatic. It is active both on intracellular and extracellular Mycobacteria. Good distribution, it can also penetrate inside the macrophages. It main problem are hepatotoxicity (20% of patients) and neurotoxicity.The metabolism is hepatic including by acetylation (interindividual pharmacogenetic variability). It is eliminated by the kidney.
Rifampicine: The most colored drug for the treatment of tuberculosis.
It Inhibits the transcription by binding to the subunit β of bacterian RNA-polymérase.
(Funny fact: Occidental people don’t like it because they can’t wear lenses, it indeed color their urine and tears in orange… Whereas African people like it because they can “see” the effect)Bactericidal against intra and extra cellular Mycobacteria. Very good drug diffusion (pulmonary, meningeal, bones, ganglionary…). However, enzymatic induction of cytochrome P 450 result in a modification of other drugs metabolism (drug-drug interaction).
Ethambutol
Mycobacteria catch ethambutol when they are in exponantial growth phase. Ethambutol inhibits acid mycolic or arabinose incorporation into the cell wall.Bacteriostatic for extra-cellular bacilli. Good tissular diffusion. Renal elimination. The most common serious adverse effect is optic neuritis, causing loss of visual acuity and red-green color-blindness, but are reversible.
Pyrazinamid
It Inhibits FAS (Fatty acids synthase), binds to the ribosomal protein S1 (RpsA) and inhibits trans-translation. This may explain the ability of the drug to kill dormant mycobacteria.Bactericidal for intra-cellular bacilli. Good diffusion inside the macrophages. Hepatic metabolism. Renal elimination.
Drug resistant form of TB
A multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB) is a tuberculosis resistant to isoniazid and rifampicine
An extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) is an MDR TB + a resistance to a second line drug treatment (fluoroquinolone and aminosids (kanamycine/amikacine/capreomycine). Mortality rate : 35%.
One of the main concern of the clinicans is the appearance of those resistances. The main cause of apparition of resistances in a patient in France, is the patient’s lack of observance. In order to improve observance, some pills combining 3 drugs (rifampicine/isoniazide/pyrazinamide) have been developped.
The treatment is accompanied by an educational monitoring. The patient is thouroughly explained the importance of observing the treatment as well as the best conditions to avoid contagion of their closed ones. This monitoring is mainly handled by the CLAT (Centre de Luttre Anti Tuberculeuse), Fight Against Tuberculosis Center.
In the end, for regular TB, the outcome is extremely good (almost 100% people cured).
Public policies put in place to deal with TB
The fight against tuberculosis : a multiplicity of actors
As everything in French public policy systems, missions to fight tuberculosis are divided between several institutions and types of administrations. In a few words, French policy system has three main types of structures :
- The government represented by the ministries and what is called “services déconcentrés”, services that are responsible at a departmental and regional level of the application of the government policies
- The local powers or “collectivités territoriales” : from the city, to the department or regions, those administration are run by people elected locally and are responsible of making the specific interest of a defined territories known and put in place
- Public or semi-public institutions : Might they be firms like the “SNCF” which is responsible for the train or research institutions or monitoring administrations, they are quite independent but under the general direction of ministry and have one or several specific missions.
In order to see clearly who does what, here is a synthetic table which underlines who deals with what in the general monitoring of TB.
The French “Plan de lutte anti Tuberculeuse 2007-2009 “ aka plan for the fight against TB.
This national plan was created in 2006 after TB was put in the 100 highest priorities for health policy par the French Parliament.
It’s goal is to improve the fight against TB.
Its implementation revolves around six main axis. has 6 axis :
- to ensure an early diagnosis and an adapted treatment for all TB disease cases
- To improve the detection of TB
- TO optimize the vaccinale strategy of TB
- to maintain resistance to antibiotics to a low level
- to improve the epidemiological monitoring and the knowledge about determinants of TB
- to improve the coordination of the fight against TB
This plan mainly changed 2 things. : the vaccination policy and the delegation to local powers (CLAT) the main concrete actions.
Until 2007, vaccination was mandatory for every child. The vaccination coverage was higher than 90%. Due to a lack of efficiency of the vaccine (BCG) and the idea that TB was almost eradicated, the vaccination stopped being mandatory. Today, it is highly recommended, especially when the children start going to school. However, this led to a drastic reduction of vaccinated children (only 59% today). Vaccination is still mandatory for all medical personnal. A lot of pediatrician think this was a huge mistake and keep on vaccinating all the children they see. However, the evaluation of this policy by the HCSP (High Council for public health) lead to the conclusion that no strong problem has been reported until nowand that therefore this policy should be maintained.
The second main change was the delegation of power to the CLAT. The CLAT located in every department coordinates medical centers, leads teams of investigators, organize detection activities … The efficacity of the active detection has been questioned. Indeed, out of more than 1000 detection done, only a few cases (less than 5) have been reported in the last year. Moreover the evaluation of the HCSP has concluded, more means should be given to CLAT which perform most of the action and don’t benefit from enough fundings.
Tuberculosis,a social disease
TB, a social stigma ?
A striking fact when talking to professional people dealing with TB is the social aspect of disease. In France, TB is known among medical personnal as the disease of poor people. Doctors mainly diagnose TB according to “the environmental context” that is to say the appearance and life conditions of the patient.
To illustrate this fact, a story of a patient was told to us. A white female 40 years old women, coughed for months, spit blood and expressed all the symptoms of TB. She was seen by more than 10 doctors but no one could figure out what she had because
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she was not living in a precarious situation
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she was not HIV positiv or immunodepressed
Basically, she did not fit the profile. She got tuberculosis while working in Hahiti and living in promiscuity with people affected by tuberculosis.
In France, this past few years, patients suffering from TB have been more and more coming from a foreign country. In 2010 , the number of foreign patients treated for TB was higher than the number of native ones.
Semi efficient Health Care systems, the story of the rise of MDR forms
What scares the medical personnal is the rise of MDR forms. Indeed, it is strongly believed in the French medical community that those bacteria are found on migrants who had TB for a long time but a one that were already treated.
Indeed, most of the migrants, who are treated in Paris come from the foreign Soviet Union and South Africa. This can be surprising at first, becquse it could be expected that because of the strong presence of migrants from north and central Africa in France, TB would mainly be found in those populations.
However, the story is a bit more complicated. South Africa and the former Soviet Union have both in common the fact that they have a funcitonning health care system. However, they are not as efficient as occidental ones, especially because they don’t have the financial means to treat every disease as it should be.
Therefore, most patients suffering of TB were treated with one or maybe two antibiotics. This did not lead to the disease being cured but to the development of resistances.
How does this concern France ? In fact, a lot of migrants coming to France from those countries carry an MDR form of TB leading to a rise of the number of MDR forms treated.
Treat everyone, at what cost ?
In France, even if there is no emergency, everyone is treated and given medical attention. The health care system is national and people who cannot pay don’t. For TB most of the patients who are treated don’ have the financial means to pay, therefore, it is basically paid by the Infectiology department that treat them and in the end by French taxes.
The treatment of TB as described previously , is a long and costly one. Indeed, it is not only about the antibiotics. When a patient is diagnosed, everyone living with him is also screened for TB and the patient is given an appropriate housing situation at least for the duration of the treatment. Social workers are also paid to dispense preventive measures and to practice “active detection of the disease".
Those economical cost get much worst when dealing with resistant forms of TB. For example, when a XDR for is detected, the patient is put in a clean room (where the air going outside of the room is clean). Only essential medical personal is allowed in the room. Very extreme treatments are used like surgery or ECMO.
Today, patients come from Former Soviet Union countries with signs saying “Professeur Caumes, Head Of Infectiology Department, Hopital Pitié Salpetriere , Paris”. This trend scares clinicians because at one point, they might be able to treat all the patients in the right condition but also because one day, the dis
